Planning for literacy learning

Language is the blood of the soul into which thoughts run and out of which they grow. ~Oliver Wendell Holmes

What can a teacher do to maximise learning in the literacy classroom?

A teacher can take many steps to assist young children to grasp concepts of the English language. One strategy that has proven successful involves working in groups. This is useful in that it not only strengthens one's literacy learning, but it also helps to form social bonds. However, these behaviours do not occur automatically, and require a great deal of assistance from teachers.

In order for this co-operation to occur within the classroom, teachers need to have clear goals to pass onto their students. These may include:

• modelling co-operative behaviour (remember that young children are very likely to imitate behaviours they observe, especially if they result with positive effects,
• providing opportunities to practice these behaviours
• giving feedback
• explaining why this behaviour is important to their learning.

Co-operative learning also places children in situations where they must interact with others, quite often people they would not associate with. This helps reduce feelings of exclusion of those who are considered different (Hill, 2006). These groups share some common attributes, which are described below.

Positive interdependence
This results when each child has a separate part to play (a role) within their collaborative group. Puppet shows are an excellent example of this aspect at work. Each child is able to express their individual thoughts through their puppet, and work in a group to convey their meaning.

Common goals
This simply means that each child has the same idea in mind, and wants to achieve the same thing. For example, if the children went on a school excursion to the local museum and are going to make a class book about their trip, each child should be focused on the task. Each child may be given a different task, but in the end, these smaller tasks should go towards the big activity; the class book. If each child had their mind on different things, such as wondering who they were going to play with at recess, or what they did on the weekend, a common goal is unable to be achieved.

Heterogeneous groups-changing group membership
Different times call for different group types. For example, guided reading groups may need to be of similar ability, and members in friendship groups also tend to be similar. However, children with negative feelings find it hard to break free from these cycles. Teachers need to intervene here, by randomly grouping children often. One strategy involves writing each child's name on a slip of paper and pinning it to a board for literacy groups, in order to change each child to a different group if necessary. Therefore, no one feels left out and everyone can work with each other. Teachers also need to be mindful that no one child is taking charge all of the time. If there is a need for a group leader, this should be rotated regularly. In these heterogeneous groups, children of different abilities are grouped, whereas homogeneous groups consist of students of similar ability.

Responsibilities: group and individual
To ensure groups are working well together, teachers can organise feedback circles or class meetings. Feedback circles require children to sit in a circle, while the teacher tells the group who is absent, welcoming new students or people who have recently been absent. Teachers focus on each individual rather than the whole group, realising that no two students have exactly the same needs.

Co-operative skills
The following table lists some co-operative skills which children need to require, not only to function appropriately at school, but also in society. It is adapted from Hill (2006).

FORMING GROUPS · making space for people · making pairs or circles · staying with the group · keeping hands and feet to yourself · forming groups without bothering others	GROUP ROLES · observer · recorder · summariser · encourager · clarifier · organiser · time keeper · predictor · code breaker · meaning maker · text user · text critic
COMMUNICATION · eye contact · taking turns · active listening · using quiet voices · using people’s names · eliminating put-downs
PROBLEM SOLVING · defining the problem · brainstorming · clarifying ideas · confirming ideas · elaborating ideas · seeing consequences · criticising ideas · organising information · finding solutions	MANAGING DIFFERENCES · starting position or problem · seeing the problem from another view · negotiating · mediating · reaching consensus

Important things to remember...

Teachers should utilise the small group strategy because children can:

• support each other
• work at their own level
• work independently of the teacher, and
• experience a variety of tasks. (Hill, 2006, p.364)

As a teacher, one needs to ensure that:

• there is a group leader, but not always is the same person
• children likely to distract others are separated from each other, and
• if a child disrupts the group, they can be removed from that group. (Hill, 2006, p.365)

Teachers should divide the class equally, selecting a leader and numbering each group. The children should be explicitly told what they are to do, and that they will work in a group for part of the lesson, with rules to follow. The rest of the lesson can be broken up as follows:

Modelling behaviour
A book is chosen for each group (by the teacher). A group is then chosen to demonstrate the activity, observed by the rest of the class, who will stand on the outside of the demonstrating group's circle. Teachers should revisit the activity's steps after this demonstration. Children are asked to follow the following rules:

1. Our leader helps the group.
2. I read quietly to myself.
3. I read my book to my partner.
4. I listen to my partner read.
5. We read the book together.
6. The leader reads the activity with us.
7. We complete the activity quietly.
8. The leader chooses one person to share their activity or read at the end of the session in sharing time.
9. We sit quietly listening to children sharing their activity.
10. The leaders quickly report to the class about how their group was working. (Hill, 2006, p.365)

Establishing routines
For the first few lessons, follow rules 1 to 5 to set a routine. This will also help the children to co-operate as a group. When this occurs, introduce steps 6, 7 and 8. Teachers should observe each group working, as well as helping and assessing them. More explanation may be needed when the lesson is first introduced, for the first few occasions.

Guided reading
When the above routine is set, teachers can take each group for guided reading. However, each group must be homogeneous, reading independently, and using a book one or two levels above their instructional level. At the conclusion of each lesson, teachers should encourage students to give feedback on how they worked together.

Suggested lesson planning
A 40 minute lesson may be broken into the following tasks:

• shared reading using a big book, for first 15 minutes
  • read for enjoyment during first lesson
  • lessons 2, 3 and 4 should have a focus, chosen by teacher
• next 15 minutes require children working in small groups
  • may be from their own reader or from the big book's focus
• 5 minutes: class shared reading or another activity
• 5 minutes: song, rhyme, chant. (Hill, 2006, p.366)

Overall, group work is beneficial because it promotes learning, from which one experiences cognitive gains. Each child can also exercise their communication skills, and each child is encouraged by their peers to participate in the task at hand.


So, what is characteristic of a good literacy teacher?

Andrea Hillbrick, an expert in the field of literacy teaching, has many ideas for literacy teachers to follow in order to be effective. Some are listed below.

Recall tray
Any tray can be used, on which the teacher places some unknown objects for children to question. The objects must relate to the next story or lesson of literacy, and remain hidden until soon before the lesson. However, they must relate to difficult aspects of the text. For example, the book mention a set of binoculars, which the teacher can put on the tray for children to observe. The teacher is then introducing new concepts; in this case, what a pair of binoculars look like. The child uses observation and listening skills here, and asks questions in order to develop their own meanings.

Learning triangles
These are constructed on diagrams like that in the image opposite. Children write about what they have SEEN, what they have HEARD, what they have DONE and what they will ask NOW (after the lesson). This is an effective tool to use to consolidate knowledge obtained from a particular lesson.

Maximise time on task
Teachers need to be mindful to balance their individual, group and whole class interactions. Therefore, no one child is receiving more attention individually, and different learning styles are being met. This can be achieved by using task management boards, where children are grouped according to their needs. However, teachers should write each child's name on an individual piece of card, so that each group can be adapted as needed for abilities. An example of a lesson breakdown using an appropriate balanced structure is set out below.

Whole class	10-15 mins	Shared reading
Small group -use learning centres and different teaching approaches	40 mins	Modelled, shared and guided reading
Whole class share time	10 mins	Remember not to let children pack up beforehand, otherwise attention may be lost! Whole class focus: shared reading of 10-15 mins. Work on what they need!

A good approach to whole class teaching involves using a "word splash", or "brainstorm". Here, children and/or the teacher brainstorms words related to a particular topic. If teaching Prep to Grade 2, it is better for the teacher to carry out the word splash, whereas children themselves can do this from Years 3 to 6.

Four corners debate
Here, each corner of the room holds a different opinion; Agree, Disagree, Strongly Agree and Strongly Disagree. The teacher is to choose an issue, recite it to the students, and allow them to move to the corner in which they believe. This is effective as there are no incorrect answers-each person is entitled to their own opinion.

Teachers should engage in modelling, questioning and scaffolding
Scaffolding simply means that a teacher should provide additional support when needed, for example when unfamiliar vocabulary is encountered.

Some other good ideas include:

• dictagloss-asking children to read a text, write down unfamiliar words, and rewriting the text in a way the students themselves understand
• random input box-box with many words, one is selected and a known story is adapted to incorporate that word. For example, using the word "bicycle" and Little Red Riding Hood, children may write, "The wolf was riding a bicycle and he broke his leg when he fell off".
• writer's notebook-children write ideas in the back of an exercise book, to refer to later
• 4D word frame-contains 4 dimensions:
  • The word in the sentence in the text
  • The definition from the dictionary
  • The word in relation to their life, and
  • A symbolic picture to represent the word.
• Cross-check table: record each child's name in a cell of the table, and what they have achieved. A section beneath asks "Where to next?", where teachers come up with ideas. This can be used for small groups or the whole class

IT IS ALSO EXTREMELY IMPORTANT A TEACHER BUILDS ON WHAT IS FAMILIAR TO THE CHILD! THEREFORE, A CHILD CAN ELABORATE ON WHAT THEY ALREADY KNOW!

There are also a number of activities teachers can use in their literacy classes, such as:

Learning Centre	What is it?	Examples
Writing centre	children can make books using pencils and paper, or word processors stimuli provided, such as books read in guided/shared reading sessions may be creative writing or more structured, based on a text, for example, answering questions "I like..."	pocket charts (words in clear plastic with a picture)-children make sentences out of these and copy them making books (individually or in groups) concertina cumulative (each student writes one sentence) photo story (about excursions, etc.) television story (about child's interests) story map
Alphabet centre	emergent and early readers only focuses on phonemic awareness, print awareness (letter formation) and sound-letter relationships	clapping games (syllables, beats or words) picture card games
Word work centre	making and breaking words reading high frequency words	card games using plastic letters to make and break words into onsets and rimes word sort-depending on onsets and rimes word ladders-changing one letter at a time, to form a new word, e.g. bat-bet-bed jigsaw puzzles
Book browsing centre	independent or collaborative work uses books previously read aloud by teacher	May include: poetry dictionaries non fiction fables fairytales alphabet books photograph albums class-made books big books, etc.
Interactive literacy centre	interactively read and respond to texts multiple copies of the text available for pairs/small groups to read aloud may be dramatic retellings	puppet shows, felt stories tape recordings and books (listening post) video CD ROM-multimedia presentations Chalk talk-child 'draws' a story Readers theatre-reading texts aloud for an audience, by groups, with sound effects etc.